“锁国”之下，日本如何继续学习？

National Diet Library, Japan–Netherlands Exchange in the Edo Period, Part 1, section 3, “Boom in Dutch Studies,” subsection on Tokugawa Yoshimune. The gifts of Dodoens in 1659 and Jonston in 1663, the 1720 relaxation, and Noro Genjō's work on Oranda honzō wage. The library describes the books as having remained unread; this is not presented as evidence that nobody anywhere in Japan possessed any Dutch-language knowledge. https://www.ndl.go.jp/nichiran/e/s1/s1_3.html

National Diet Library, Part 1, section 2, “From Hirado to Nagasaki,” on the 1635 overseas-travel and return prohibitions and the 1639 expulsion. Dejima's official history describes the religious suppression accompanying the regulation of foreign contact. The essay does not infer unrestricted movement from exceptions to the controls. https://www.ndl.go.jp/nichiran/e/s1/s1_2.html ; https://nagasakidejima.jp/english/history/

Edo-Tokyo Museum, Sakokuron, 1801, two manuscript volumes, accession 88200246–88200247, Tokyo Museum Collection. The record identifies Shizuki Tadao's translation of Kaempfer and the term's first appearance in this work. The date of the terminology is distinguished from the earlier policies it later described. https://museumcollection.tokyo/works/6810161/

Nagasaki City, “History of the Chinese Compound,” on the establishment of the Tōjin yashiki in 1689 and its role in managing Chinese merchants. It is a separate compound, not another name for Dejima. https://www.city.nagasaki.lg.jp/page/2242.html

Historian Arano Yasunori, “The ‘Four Gateways’ and Nagasaki Trade: Reconsidering Early Modern Japan's International Relations,” July 19, 2012, his own account of the model he proposed. For continuing examination of the differences among regional arrangements, see the reports of the 2019 symposium “The Formation of the Nagasaki Gateway,” hosted on historian Matsukata Fuyuko's University of Tokyo website. These are accounts by the researchers, not evidence for an official Tokugawa policy bearing the name “four gateways.” https://www.nippon.com/ja/features/c00104/ ; https://www.hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp/personal/fuyuko/kaken/nagasakikuchi.html

National Diet Library, Part 2, section 2, “Activities of Dutch Studies,” especially the entries on interpreters, Maeno Ryōtaku, Sugita Genpaku, and Rangaku Kotohajime. The memoir was completed in 1815; its narrative is not treated as a verbatim record of conversations in 1771. https://www.ndl.go.jp/nichiran/e/s2/s2_2.html

Tsuyama Archives of Western Learning, “The Publication of Kaitai Shinsho,” on the 1771 dissection, the domain physicians, the Dutch version of Kulmus, and the 1774 publication. The museum recounts the familiar origin story; the essay distinguishes that retrospective narrative from the reasoning supported by the comparison itself. https://www.tsuyama-yougaku.jp/Vol1.html

Museum of Medicine, Nippon Dental University at Niigata, “Yamawaki Tōyō: Zōshi,” on his observation in 1754 and publication in 1759. This earlier case is sufficient to show that the 1771 dissection did not introduce anatomical observation into a country without it. https://www.ngt.ndu.ac.jp/museum/gallery/galleryitem36.html

Jason Ānanda Josephson Storm, “The Body Is Never Just Flesh,” Harvard Divinity School, Center for the Study of World Religions, May 26, 2025. The historian discusses the executed woman, Genpaku's later memoir, and the limitations of an abrupt-break narrative. The ethical distinction between the woman's body being used and her having consented is the essay's reflection, not a claim that a consent document survives. https://cswr.hds.harvard.edu/news/2025/05/26/body-never-just-flesh

University of Tokyo Medical Library, Kaitai Shinsho, 1774, call number HR:91, digital collection record. Its description distinguishes the illustrated opening volume from the four explanatory volumes written in kanbun. https://da.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/portal/en/assets/369347ce-8869-4eb6-9120-50273515a37d

Printing Museum, Tokyo, Kaitai Shinsho, 1774, collection numbers 37883–37887, on woodblock production and the development of terminology including shinkei. Its broader suggestion that earlier medicine ignored observation is not adopted here. https://www.printing-museum.org/collection/looking/37883.php

Chuan-Hang Yu and Toshihide Sato, “From Valverde to Kulmus: Tracing Western Origins of the Kaitai Shinsho Frontispiece,” Anatomical Sciences Education, 2025, DOI 10.1002/ase.70014. Used for the authors' comparison of visual sources and Odano Naotake's role, not as proof that empirical inquiry began in Japan with this book. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11960419/

National Diet Library, Part 2, section 3, “Studying the Dutch Language,” particularly Rangaku Kaitei (1788), Haruma Wage (1796), and the discussion of copied dictionaries. The account supports teaching, patronage, and the practical costs of access; it supplies no basis for assuming universal literacy or unrestricted circulation. https://www.ndl.go.jp/nichiran/e/s2/s2_3.html

Juntendō University, Virtual Museum of Medical History, “Chōtei Kaitai Shinsho,” on Gentaku's expanded revision, restored explanatory material, terminology, and the separately issued illustrations of 1826; National Diet Library's curated Kaitai Shinsho collection on the accompanying terminology volumes. https://www.juntendo.ac.jp/jmehm/vmh/pop/choteikaitaishinsho.html ; https://jpsearch.go.jp/gallery/ndl-0w6YVq3m00U6qp

National Diet Library, “Watanabe Kazan,” The World of Book Ownership Stamps, on his coastal-defense duties, scholarly connections, the Morrison affair, criticism of policy, and the 1839 crackdown. https://www.ndl.go.jp/zoshoin/collection/30.html

National Diet Library, Part 2, section 2, “Bansha no Goku Affair (1839),” and its record for Shinshaku yochi zusetsu, call number WA21-5. The record identifies San'ei's translation, Kazan's transcription and corrections, and confiscation. The crackdown is not represented as a ban on all Dutch studies. https://www.ndl.go.jp/nichiran/e/s2/s2_2.html

National Diet Library, “Takahashi Kageyasu,” The World of Book Ownership Stamps, on the official translation undertaking within the astronomical administration and work on Chomel's encyclopedia. https://www.ndl.go.jp/zoshoin/collection/16.html