在日本，谁决定医生的行医资格？

Matsuki Akitomo (松木明知), “廣田伝亮（泌，子泉）の『見聞録』と1820年代初期の春林軒における医療,” Journal of the Japanese Society for the History of Medicine 66, no. 3 (2020): 245–266, especially the published abstract on Hirota's 1819 entry into Shunrinken, his 1821 editorial work, and his 1822–24 clinical record. The essay does not infer a formal diploma or national legal status from his enrollment; it uses the record to show supervised school-based training. https://doi.org/10.60306/jshm.66.3_245

Matsuzaki Noriko (松﨑範子), “村井椿寿（琴山）と吉益東洞,” Journal of the Japanese Society for the History of Medicine 65, no. 1 (2019): 43–65, published abstract. Used for Murai Chinjū's role in the Kumamoto domain school, his later study under Yoshimasu Tōdō, and the subsequent teaching of Tōdō-line medicine through his private school. The example illustrates lineage and school transmission; it is not used to claim that all Tokugawa physicians trained through the same structure. https://doi.org/10.60306/jshm.65.1_43

Tatsuo Sakai, “Medical Education and Practice at Early Juntendo During the First Three Generations of Directors: Analysis from the Standpoint of History of Medicine,” Juntendo Medical Journal 72, no. 3 (2026): 292–304, abstract and results. Used for the three-stage development from Sato Taizen's 1838 school through Nagasaki-trained and German-trained successors, and for the connection between translated textbooks, clinical practice, and increasingly systematic education. https://doi.org/10.14789/ejmj.JMJ26-0014-OA

Fukuda Maiko (福田舞子), “『蘭方』医学資料解題①,” Kitanomaru: Bulletin of the National Archives of Japan 57 (2025): 38–69, published abstract. Used for the institutional sequence from the privately founded Otamagaike Vaccination Institute in May 1858, through official authorization and shogunal control in July 1860, to the Western Medical School/Medical School and later institutional inheritance under the Meiji government. This essay uses the institute as evidence of institutional formation, not as a retelling of vaccination history. https://doi.org/10.69245/kitanomaru.57.0_38

Ock Joo Kim and Takuya Miyagawa, “Development of Modern Medical Doctors in Japan from Late Edo to Early Meiji,” Korean Journal of Medical History 20, no. 2 (2011): 493–554, English abstract and article overview. Used for the spread of Western medical education through private schools, domains, Nagasaki and shogunal institutions, and for the 1874 move toward a national licensing system with school and examination routes. The article's long historical survey is not treated as evidence that Western medicine displaced all other practice uniformly or immediately. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22343704/ ; PDF: https://medhist.or.kr/upload/pdf/kjmh-20-2-493.pdf

Kiyoshi Kodera, Yojiro Ishii, Tsunenori Aoki, Tatsuya Ashida, and Chiharu Abe, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan's Experience with Human Resources for Health Policies (2013), Part I, chapter 1 “Medical Doctor,” especially printed pp. 11–14 on the Meiji licensing transition and geographic distribution; and Part II, chapter 1, especially printed pp. 25–27 on postwar education, internship, and national qualification reform. The report records the 1874 Isei licensing design, transitional recognition of existing practitioners, the 1874 figure of 23,015 kampō practitioners among 28,262 doctors, the 1882 tightening of entry, the 1914 end of the separate licensing-examination route, the 1942 school-graduate share, the 1936 municipalities-without-doctors figure, and the 1946–47 introduction of the postwar internship and national examination. The report itself relies in part on the Ministry of Health and Welfare's Isei Hyakunenshi; numerical claims here are attributed to the report rather than represented as independently reconstructed from original registers. https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/thematic_issues/health/c8h0vm00005zn23n-att/JapansExperiencewithHumanResourcesforHealthPolicies.pdf