Qubilai Khan

Qubilai Khan (1215–1294), a grandson of Chinggis Khan, became Great Khan in 1260 and founded the Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. His forces completed the conquest of the Southern Song in 1279. From his capital at Dadu, present-day Beijing, he governed a vast East Asian realm. Japan confronted a ruler able to draw on resources from China and the Korean kingdom of Goryeo, rather than an army belonging to one people alone. [S01, S02]

Envoys brought his demand for relations on terms of submission to Japan in 1268, using Goryeo as intermediary. The Kamakura government did not accept it. Qubilai authorized attacks in 1274 and 1281; the second joined forces sailing from Korea with a large fleet from southern China. Japanese defenses and fighting obstructed the invasion, and a devastating storm struck the fleet in 1281. Both expeditions failed to establish Yuan rule in Japan. [S01, S02, S03]

Qubilai continued preparing further expeditions, although other wars and resistance elsewhere complicated those plans. He died in 1294 without conquering Japan. The failed crossings consumed imperial resources; on the Japanese side, the continuing possibility of another attack sustained costly coastal service. His place in this history extends beyond the two battles: his demands made overseas diplomacy, military readiness and the distribution of defense burdens persistent concerns for the Kamakura regime. [S02, S03]